The Hawaiian Islands were not a very hospitable place when people first arrived. There were few edible indigenous plants, and no large animals on land to eat. Hawaiians had to bring their own food crops, and enhance the land so that it could support the growth of their agriculture. It took many generations to build a thriving sustainable civilization.

Hawaiians found a way adapt their culture to enhance the island’s ecosystem. Like the indigenous birds and plants, they spread out to all of the different habitats available in the Islands. They adapted their culture to the land in a way that provided a sustainable living for generations.

The First Hawaiians

The islands of the Pacific Ocean were the last place on Earth to be colonized by humans. It took ingenuity, skill, and bravery to set out in the open ocean and find a new island to inhabit.² Exactly who, how, and when people first came to Hawai‘i is not precisely known.

The earliest evidence of humans in the Hawaiian Archipelago are from about 1,000 years ago. The first settlers were probably Polynesians. Polynesians are an ethnic group that lives on Pacific islands in the Polynesian triangle. The corners of the Polynesian triangle are Hawai‘i, Easter Island (Rapa Nui), and New Zealand (Aotearoa).

Polynesian languages and cultures are very similar. However, Polynesians as an ethnic group is a European idea. Polynesians don’t necessarily see the same distinctions between themselves and neighboring Micronesian and Melanesian islanders. European ethnographers often relied on skin color to determine ethnic divisions.

Polynesians are part of a larger ethnic group called Austronesian. Austronesian people can trace their origin to Taiwan and are linked mostly through language similarities. Austronesian ancestors are estimated to have started expanding into the Pacific islands sometime between  3,500 to 5,000 years ago. Austronesian people live on islands from Polynesia in the east Pacific, through the Philippines, Malay South-East Asia, and as far west as Madagascar near Africa. Genetic studies show that Austronesians migrated and mixed with many different populations from all around the Pacific and Indian oceans.

Austronesian people were skilled seafarers who regularly traveled and traded across the oceans for thousands of years. For them, the oceans as a unifying medium that allows people to travel between the vast constellation of islands in the Pacific.

The earliest major group of people to settle in the Hawaiian Islands are thought to have come from the Marquesas Islands, Hiva. They were culturally distinct from the group that arrived from Tahiti hundreds of years later. The Tahitians eventually came to dominate in Hawai‘i, Maui Nui,³ and O‘ahu. The earlier Hiva culture remained strong on the islands of Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau. This led to a mix of different cultures on different islands.

Physical evidence for populations originating from places other than Hiva and Tahiti is lacking. However, it is possible that small groups of people arrived from many different parts of the Pacific to live in the Hawaiian Islands at different times. These ancient people may have disappeared over time, or become absorbed by more numerous populations.

There are stories of people outside of the dominant Hiva and Tahiti groups. Islands like Lāna‘i and O‘ahu were said to be inhabited by evil cannibalistic spirits in ancient times.⁴ Hawaiians did not practice cannibalism. These stories may be referring to people from some other unknown origin. Hawaiian legends also say that the Nawao people were the first to inhabit the Islands.⁵ The Nawao were said to be large, wild, and lived in the mountains.

The Nawao were said to be driven out of the Islands by the Menehune. Menehune were said to be a race of small people who were known for their engineering skill and able to build fabulous stone structures overnight. Some people say the Menehune are the early population of Hawaiians from the Hiva group. A census of Kaua‘i in 1820 noted that 65 people claimed to be Menehune.

Even within the two main groups from Hiva and Tahiti, Hawaiian culture has also been a mix of many different local communities from diverse origins. There have been many different ways of being Hawaiian from the beginning.

When Captain Cook arrived in 1778, The Hawaiian Islands were divided into four major kingdoms. Hawai‘i island was one. Maui, Molokai, Lāna‘i, and Kaho‘olawe were another kingdom. O‘ahu was the third kingdom. Finally, Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau were another kingdom.

The Hawaiian language has different dialects. The Hawaiian in modern documents and books with diacritical pronunciation markings comes from institutions like the University of Hawai‘i, which are building a standardized language for use in the modern world.

Historically, Hawaiian language is diverse. Place names are one example of where regional dialects can still be seen. On Kauai “hana” refers to bay, like in Hana-lei and Hana-koa. On Oahu “hono” is used to refer to bay, like in Hono-lulu. Native speakers on the island of Ni‘ihau also maintain a different dialect that uses different pronunciation and some different words.

Some people want to say that certain words are right or wrong. It’s more interesting and helpful to explore why someone may use a different word or pronunciation. How did they learn the words? Sometimes it’s an interesting story.⁶

The Kapu of old Hawaii

The Hawaiian Kingdom was ruled by kings originating from the island of Hawai‘i, but each island has it’s own distinct character. Many of the features that we associate with indigenous Hawaiian culture today were established by the Tahitian immigrants who came to dominate the island of Hawai‘i. 

Many of the laws, or Kapu⁷ system, of old Hawai‘i are said to have been introduced by Pā‘ao, who came to Hawai‘i sometime in the 12^th or 13^th century. Although earlier Hawaiians had a related system of laws and religious beliefs, Pā‘ao introduced a more rigid system of laws that were different from what earlier Hawaiians were used to.⁸ Pā‘ao was a chief, priest, and navigator from Tahiti. He established the royal lineage in Hawai‘i that started with Pili Ka‘aiea from whom Kamehameha is a descendant.

Eventually, Liholiho (Kamehameha II) and Queen Ka‘ahumanu abolished the old religion and Kapu system in 1819. The rigid laws of Hawaiian Kapu were incompatible with the modern era and Christian culture. Even so, it’s helpful to know the basics of the old system to understand Hawaiian mo‘olelo (stories).

Ali‘i

There were four major social classes under the Hawai‘i Kapu system. The leaders were known as the ali‘i. They were the ruling class who held religious and political authority. Status as ali‘i was established mostly through genealogy. There were several different ranks of ali‘i. Ranks ranged from supreme kings of whole islands or multiple islands called the mō‘ī. On the lowest ranking end were commoners who could claim only one parent as ali‘i.

Many of the rules of Kapu were social protocols dictating the interactions between the different social classes. Higher ranking ali‘i were considered to have more “mana,” or spiritual energy. A higher concentration of mana in a person enabled a closer connection with the gods. The nature of Hawaiian gods is both natural and supernatural, practical and spiritual.⁹ The Ali‘i were therefore responsible for communing with the akua (gods) to provide supernatural protection from natural disasters and for skillfully managing the daily functions of the community. Rigid rules defined a clear social hierarchy that preserved the ruling class. Rigid protocols often increased proportionally with increased authority.

Other Kapu rules dictated relationships between people and the ‘āina, coordinating the management of fisheries and agriculture. Farming and fishing were scheduled according to the seasons and phases of the Moon. Kapu rules also defined people’s relationship to the akua. Breaking rules of Kapu could be punishable by death.

Kahuna

Some ali‘i were kahuna. The kahuna class held special knowledge and are usually described as priests. Hawaiian religion encompassed all areas of life, and functional knowledge was embedded in spiritual practice. Kahuna had specialties as doctors, navigators, master craftspeople, and more. They might be considered equivalent to a “professional” today—someone educated, with advanced degrees or certification, who does important work.

Maka‘āinana

The common people were known as the maka‘āinana. Ma-ka-‘āina-na can mean “the people of the land,” or maka-‘āina-na “the watchers of the land.” Both reading imply a role of caretaker of the ‘āina (land). The majority of people were maka‘āinana and formed the core of Hawaiian society. They were capable independent individuals with a strong obligation to communal guardianship of the land. Strong communal bonds secured their relationships to each other and the land.

The maka‘āinana lived under the rule of the ali‘i. The ali‘i controlled the use of the land and sea. Everything was the property of the ali‘i. The maka‘āinana cultivated the land and fought in the wars for the ali‘i. Everyone was well fed and happy when the ali‘i ruled wisely.

Although the ali‘i held ultimate authority, they could still be held accountable to the common people. Maka’āinana were free to leave the domain of one ali‘i for another, if they felt that the ali‘i were doing a poor job or that they were being treated unfairly. There were even occasions where ali‘i were punished or murdered by the maka‘āinana, if the ali‘i unbearably abused their authority.

The foundation of Hawaiian society has always been the ability of maka‘āinana to cultivate the land into an abundant state. This was done by recognizing and enhancing natural functions. To enhance natural functions requires amplifying benefits to all life in the system. This synergistic approach created an environment that was continually regenerating and growing in abundance.

Indigenous Hawaiian culture built and maintained a series of ahupua‘a systems¹⁰ that could sustain a growing community. Each island was called a mokupuni, which was divided into large districts called moku, which were divided into counties called ahupua’a, which were divided into ‘ili, and finally family parcels of land called kuleana.

Each ahupua‘a is generally defined by the watershed from the mountains to the sea. Each ahupua‘a manages its water resources separately from its neighbors. The ahupua‘a land management systems maintained watershed forests in the mountains, irrigated agricultural fields in the dry lowlands, and created ponds that provided abundant supplies of fish along the coast. They became prosperous by serving the land. These systems may have been able to support a population close to 800,000 Hawaiians when Captain Cook visited in 1778.

Kauwā

A fourth class of people was the kauwā. They were an exploited outcast minority. Kauwā were conquered people and exiled lawbreakers evicted from the fertile lands and confined to reservations on the poorest lands. They were self sufficient and separate. They were treated as pariahs and forbidden from interacting with the other classes of people. The only interactions between kauwā and other classes was as a slave to an ali‘i, or as an occasional human sacrifice to the gods of war.

There were, of course, unpleasant occurrences under the old rules. There was, war, famine, illness, injustice, and many of the other problems found in human society. By examining the totality of Hawaiian culture we can recognize the parts that we want to emulate, and those we should avoid.

Hawaiian culture has gone through many different phases, each time adapting to changing circumstances. Even though the formal social structures of Hawaiian Kapu have been toppled over, the roots of Hawaiian culture remain. Perhaps, with care, we can nurture and grow a society that values caring for the land in a way that brings abundance for all.