Hanafuda cards were designed during the Edo period in Japanese history (1603 – 1868). They are decorated with popular themes in Japanese culture at the time. Many of the images refer to the Heian period (794 – 1185), which was seen as a classical golden age of culture in Japan. Many traditionally decorated Japanese items have the same themes and motifs as hanafuda. Knowing the stories behind the images can help deepen your understanding of visual messages in Japanese art.
Calendars in the Edo period
The Gregorian calendar has become the universal standard for our modern industrial world. However, Japanese in the Edo period viewed time differently. Before 1873 the Japanese calendar was based on the Chinese solar-lunar calendar. This calendar took into account the movements of both the Earth around the Sun, and the Moon around the Earth. These two orbits do not synchronize neatly in a year.1 The orbital periods of the sun and moon were synchronized in the 11th month when the winter solstice occurs. New Year’s Day was set two new moons after the winter solstice. The 11th month’s length changed depending on when the winter solstice occurred within it. This means that the lunar new year begins between 3 to 7 weeks after the start of the modern new year. This date is still celebrated by Chinese as the Lunar New Year.
An advantage of the solar-lunar calendar was that people could tell the date by just observing the moon and sun. People didn’t have to read or write or keep track of dates. Every month started and ended with the new moon, and the full moon was always in the middle of the month. This system was simple for a world where change came slowly, and people mostly did the same things from year to year. This calendar became very complicated when planning many years in advance or making schedules that require months of equal length. The solar-lunar calendar is mostly only used for astrological and religious purposes today.
Below are explanations of some of the symbols in the cards. The explanations are organized by suits. Hanafuda cards are organized in twelve suits that correspond to months of the year. Hanafuda suits represent each month with a flowering plant. The classical Japanese month names are also included in the descriptions. The classic month names describe the activities and the natural cycles that occurred over the course of a year. The old month names add another layer of detail to give insight into life in pre-modern Japan.
January
睦月 Mutsuki: affection month
The name Mutsuki refers to the time of year for family and friends to come together and celebrate the new year. There wasn’t much to do in the cold dark of winter besides spend time with those closest to you.
January is represented by the tsuru (red-crowned crane) and the matsu (pine). Both are symbols of long life and good luck. The pine tree is known to live for centuries and doesn’t sheds leaves. No matter how cold the winter, the pine stays green and alive. Legends say that the red-crowned crane lives for 1,000 years. This is probably an exaggeration, but they do live quite a long time. A Siberian crane was reported to have lived 83 years in captivity.
The red-crowned cranes are sacred birds in both China and Japan. They breed and spend the spring and summer in northern China, Mongolia and Siberia. In the fall they migrate to Japan and Korea for the winter. They are called the “bird of happiness” because their mating dance makes them appear to be jumping for joy as they leap into the air and float back down on outstretched wings. They also are said to mate for life, which makes them symbols of marital harmony.
The Japanese or Siberian red-crowned cranes are among the largest cranes in the world. They stand almost 5 feet tall (1.5 m), have a 6 foot wingspan (2 m), and weigh up to 30 lbs. (13.6 kg). Legendary saints are said to have ridden to heaven on the backs of giant cranes.
February
如月 Kisaragi: changing clothes month
Before the invention of the Japanese phonetic alphabets of hiragana and katakana the Japanese used Chinese characters, kanji, both for their meaning, and as a substitute for a phonetic sound. A common example is the word “sushi” which is often written as 寿司. The literal meaning of the Chinese characters is to “administer congratulations,” which has nothing to do with the food. However when read aloud phonetically, it means “sour tasting.” Sushi was originally fish pickled in a mash of fermented rice. The use of kanji, Chinese characters, phonetically is called “ateji.”
The common writing of February is 如月. The literal meaning of the kanji is “similar month,” but it can be read as “Kisaragi.” This is an example of ateji being used as a kind of shorthand, or abbreviation. The more proper writing of Kisaragi is 衣更着, which means “wear more clothes.” The meaning is clearer, but it involves more writing. February is traditionally still midwinter in Japan, and the name Kisaragi is a reminder to bundle up in warm clothes while you wait for spring to arrive.
February is represented by the ume (plum) blossom, which is the first of the flowers to bloom in the year. The plum blossom and bush warbler bird are frequently shown together to symbolize the coming of spring. The bright green mejiro, or Japanese white-eye bird, is another bird frequently pictured with the plum blossom. The mejiro is a gregarious bird that is common in both Japan and Hawaiʻi. The bush warbler has a more beautiful song, but is reclusive and difficult to spot.
“Ume ni Uguisu”
in a plum tree
Hanging in the plum tree is a red strip of paper with writing on it. This is called a tanzaku or “small book.” Tanzaku probably originated some time in the Heian period (794 – 1185). Tanzaku appear on 10 different cards, three red tanzaku with writing, four blank red tanzaku, and three blank blue/purple tanzaku. These small strips of paper had poetry written on them, and they were bound together in anthologies. The modern word tazaku usually only refers to a single slip of paper. Tanzaku have a variety of uses, but they are traditionally for writing short poems. Another popular use is to write wishes on them and hang them from a temple tree in hopes that they will come true.
pine card
The tanzaku hanging in the plum tree has “aka-yoroshi” written on it. The 10 point Pine card has the same phrase written on it. It’s a bit of a mystery exactly what it means. Some people think it’s an abbreviation of “akiraka ni yoi” which means something like “clearly better.” Perhaps this is a reference to being better than the cards with blank red tanzaku.
If you read hiragana the second character looks like it should be read as “no” instead of “ka.” The subtle tail on the first character あ changes the reading of the second character. This character belongs to the category of hiragana characters that were eventually phased out in the 20th century. Hiragana are shorthand simplifications of kanji, Chinese characters. There were many different variations and scripts before they were standardized into the 48 hiragana characters used today. Obsolete characters like this are called “hentaigana.”
March
弥生 Yayoi: new life
“Sakura ni Maku”
a sakura tree in this
19th Century print by
Toshikuni. The lady seems
to have offended her
samurai friend.
March is represented by the sakura (cherry) blossom. Although the plum is the first blossom of the year, the cherry blossom marks the real beginning of spring and new life. Sakura viewing to welcome spring is popular in Japan. People go to parks and the countryside to sit under the blossoming trees.
Sometimes, a curtain is put up to designate the sitting area for viewing. The curtain is called a jinmaku. It times of war, jinmaku were used to create temporary walls and divisions in army field camps. In more peaceful times, they can be used to shield picnics from the wind and provide some privacy.
Occasionally, the beauty of blossoming sakura inspire writing poetry on tanzaku. The 10 point sakura card has “mi yoshino” written on it, which means “beautiful Yoshino.” Yoshino is a district near the city of Nara which was known for its particularly beautiful cherry blossoms.
The sakura blossom has a deep meaning for the Japanese. Buddhism is an integral part of Japanese culture. Buddhism teaches that nothing is eternal or unchanging. Everything eventually decays and disintegrates. A blossoming cherry tree is a beautiful sight, but it does not last very long. In a moment, a strong wind can strip a blossoming tree bare. The cherry blossom is a symbol of the brevity and uncertainty of life. Youth, pleasure, fame, and misfortune, all blossom and fade like the ephemeral cherry blossom. The sakura is a reminder to focus on the present.
There is a saying “hana wa sakuragi, hito wa bushi,” meaning “the best flower is the cherry blossom, the best person is the warrior.” Besides being short lived, sakura are unblemished symbols of purity. Samurai used the cherry blossom as a symbol of a the glorious short life of a warrior. The Japanese Self Defense Forces still use sakura emblems as part of their rank insignia.
April
卯月 Uzuki: deutzia flower month
April is the month of the rabbit according to the Chinese zodiac calendar. Uzuki means “rabbit month.” It also refers to the deutzia flower or unohana. Unohana means “rabbit flower,” because it blooms in the month of the rabbit. This popular flower signals the beginning of summer.
The April hanafuda suit is represented by the fuji (wisteria) blossom. In April and May, purple fuji blossoms hang from boughs in many gardens. The cuckoo and wisteria are often shown together as symbols of late spring and the beginning of summer. The cuckoo usually calls in the dark of summer nights. The call of the cuckoo is said to sound like someone calling, “return home.”
The Japanese cuckoo, or hototogisu, is often painted flying across the face of the moon. This image signifies honor and advancement in status. It refers to the story of the samurai Minamoto no Yorimasa. The story is told in the Tale of Heike, an epic about the battles between two warring clans at the end of the 12th century.
Utagawa Kunisada 1786-1865
The fourth volume of the Tale of Heike tells Yorimasa’s story. The Heike Emperor was plagued every night by a flying monster that was making him ill. After several nights of failed attempts to banish the monster, someone suggested that the samurai Yorimasa “is a man who could subdue a monster.”
Yorimasa was a distinguished samurai who had served with bravery and success in many battles, but had not gained the recognition or honors that he deserved. Yorimasa was already in his mid 40’s and had semi-retired to be a Buddhist monk when the monster appeared. He was not very interested in fighting any flying monsters, but he could not refuse an Imperial order.
Yorimasa stood bravely in the Imperial courtyard waiting for the monster with his bow and arrows. He armed himself with only two arrows. One for the monster, and in case he missed the monster, one for the man who nominated him for the job. Fortunately, Yorimasa shot the monster out of the sky with one arrow. After the horrible monster was dead the Emperor rewarded Yorimasa with a special sword. As he was being awarded, a cuckoo flew overhead calling in the night. Yorimasa recited the following poem:
hototogisu
na o mo kumoi ni
aguru ka na
yumihari tsuki no
iru ni makasete
Translation:
The cuckoo’s name soars,
its cadence resounding
in the realm of the clouds.
It was merely drawn forth
by the sinking crescent moon.
The first verse speaks of how he finally returned from retirement and achieved the great name and honor he deserved in the Imperial Palace or “realm of the clouds.” The second verse acknowledges that his greatness is only due to his service to the Emperor, symbolized by the moon. The second verse can also be read to mean, “the shot from my drawn bow was in the hands of fate.” Modesty is very important.2
May
皐月 Satsuki: rice shoot planting month
The name of the month refers to the time when rice seedlings are transplanted. When cultivating rice, the seeds are sown in a small field in the spring. When the seedlings have sprouted they are transferred to a flooded field where they will grow until they are harvested. The flooded fields not only provide water for the rice, but also control weeds and rats that can damage the young crops.
May is represented by the ayame (iris) blossom. The iris also grows in swampy flooded fields. The upright form of the ayame represents virility and is often displayed on Boys’ Day, May 5th. The long blade like leaves are also representative of swords.
The 5-point card depicts the ayame alongside a bridge. This is a reference to a chapter from a very well known piece of Japanese literature, the “Tales of Ise”—a collection of poems from the 10th century Japan. The particular story is about a member of the Imperial Court in Kyōto who was assigned to a new post far to the east. He left his family behind in the capitol as he travelled on his long journey.
Along the way, he and his companions lost their way. They came to a place called Yatsuhashi, or “eight bridges.” This was a swampy area where a large river split into eight streams. Each of the streams was crossed by a bridge. The whole area was filled with blooming irises. The court official was feeling rather sad, was lost, in a strange land, and he missed the familiar comfort of his beautiful wife. The men stopped to rest, and the court official wrote the following poem:
から衣
きつゝなれにし
つましあれば
はるばるきぬる
たびをしぞ思ふ
Karagoromo
kitsutsu narenishi
tsuma shi areba
harubaru kinuru
tabi wo shi zo omou
Translation:
I have a beloved wife
Familiar as the skirt
Of a well-worn robe
And so this distant jouneying
Fills my heart with grief
At first glance, the poem seems to have nothing to do with irises. However, this poem is an acrostic. The first Japanese letters of the Japanese poem spell out “ka-ki-tsu-ba-ta” which is the Japanese name for the species of iris that filled the marshes. There is a second acrostic using the last characters of each line backwards which reads “u-ru-wa-shi-mo,” meaning beautiful.
You may notice that the hiragana characters do not align exactly with the pronunciation. The reason goes back to the origin of writing in Japan. The Japanese language already existed before the use of Chinese characters, kanji. How a Chinese character is read depends on the context of what Japanese word it represents; kanji is not read phonetically. Hiragana was developed as a shorthand for Chinese characters, kanji, which could also be read differently depending on context. This changed when the writing system was simplified and standardized in 1900. Hiragana became a standardized unambiguous phonetic writing system.
Even though the Tales of Ise were over 600 years old, it had special significance to the lords of Edo Japan (1603 – 1868). At the time, the Tokugawa shōgun came up with a way to keep any rivals from starting a rebellion from their home provinces. He required every lord to spend part of the year in the Capitol, Edo, and the other part in their home province. When the lords returned home, their families were kept as hostages in Edo—a guarantee that they would stay loyal while away. Also, the additional expense of maintaining two households and traveling back and forth prevented any rivals from becoming too powerful.
June
水無月 Minazuki: month of water
“Botan ni Choo”
The name for the month Mi-na-zuki is an example of ateji. The name Minazuki is made up of three Chinese characters: 水無月 (water-not-month). The middle character for “not” was often substituted as the ateji, or phonetic equivalent, for “na” which is the possessive article “of.” So Minazuki can be read as both “the month of water” and “the month without water.” June is usually toward the end of the spring rainy season, but there is still plenty of water in the flooded rice fields. The name of the month could be referring to the flooded fields, or the end of the rain.
June is represented by the botan (peony) blossom, a beautiful flower native to China. The peony is a symbol of wealth, good fortune and prosperity. The peony is known for its medicinal properties and large fragrant flowers. Peony flowers are full of nectar, and attract many insects, like butterflies.
July
文月 Fumizuki: book month
The exact meaning of Fumizuki is somewhat obscure. Some think that in the lazy days of midsummer between the planting and harvesting seasons people had time to write and read letters and poetry. Another theory is that the month was originally Fumuzuki which means “swollen month,” referring to the swelling rice grains in the fields.
July is represented by the hagi (bush clover) and inoshishi (wild boar). The bush clover is related to the pea plant, and usually blooms in July through October. The hagi cards are sometimes called “red beans” in Hawaiʻi. Wild boars are said to like to nest, or sleep, in the bush clover. Wild boars are one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac and are symbols of bravery and affection. However to villagers in the mountains, the boars can be dangerous pests that destroy crops and gardens.
As followers of Buddhism, the Japanese were discouraged from eating the meat of four legged animals. There were even times when eating meat was illegal. Fish and birds were generally acceptable meats to eat. This accounts for some of the unusual classifications of animals in Edo period Japan. Frogs and lizards were classified as insects, and rabbits were considered birds. The wild boar is sometimes referred to as yamakujira, or mountain-whale, which made it a fish.
Sometimes meat is referred to by different euphemisms. Wild boar meat is called botan (peony), horse meat is sakura (cherry blossoms), and venison is called momiji (maple leaf). These names probably have to do with the way the meat looks. The thin slices of boar meat curl up like the petals of a peony when simmered in a hot pot. Raw horse meat is pink like a cherry blossom. Venison has a more poetic association with the maple. The deer and maple are often pictured together as an example of a perfect pairing (see October).
“Hagi ni Inoshish”
August
葉月 Hazuki: leaf month
bonus combination
The name for August, Hazuki, refers to the changing seasons and falling leaves. The August hanafuda suit features the susuki (similar to pampas grass), which is another sign of the autumn season.
One of the most recognizable hanafuda cards is the full moon in a red sky. Some players in Hawaii call the card with the moon, “bozu” (slang for bald-headed). Tsukimi, or moon viewing, is the fall counterpart to cherry blossom viewing. Like the first yaku suggests, both cherry blossom viewing and moon viewing are often accompanied by the drinking of sake. The traditional date for moon viewing is August 15th. However, because the old calendar started about a month later than our modern calendars, the actual date is closer to the autumnal equinox on September 15th.
According to the old solar-lunar calendar, the month started and ended with the new moon. The full moon would be in the middle of the month. The full moon usually rises close to when the Sun is setting. When the moon is full the sun and moon are on exactly opposite sides of the Earth. When the moon is new, the Moon is on the same side of the Earth as the Sun, which is why we can’t see it at night.
As the year progresses the length of days changes. Days are longer in the summer and shorter in the winter. In the winter the full moon rises after the sun has set. In the summer, the full moon rises before the sun has set. At the equinoxes the days and nights are exactly the same length. Consequently, the moon is rising in the east at exactly the same time the sun is setting in the west.
The autumn moon is usually described as the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox. That is, the full moon closest to when the day and night are the same length in the fall. The sky of the moon card is red because the moon is rising at sunset. It is called the “harvest moon” or “hunter’s moon” because people were able to continue working into the night by the light of the full moon without any gap between the setting sun and the rising moon.
The card with wild geese shows the seasonal migration of birds, another indicator of the changing seasons. Geese migrate from Siberia in the fall and Northern China to spend the winter in Japan. Other birds leave Japan and migrate south.
September
長月 Nagatsuki: long month
“Kiku ni Sakazuki”
Nagatsuki, or long month, marks the beginning of autumn when the nights begin to be longer than the days. September is represented by the kiku (chrysanthemum) blossom.
chrysanthemum crest
The 16 petal kiku is the symbol of the Emperor of Japan. The Emperor is said to be descended from Amaterasu, the Shintō Sun goddess. The large yellow blossoms of the chrysanthemum are a fitting symbol for the radiant sun.
The Chrysanthemum is also a symbol of longevity because of the long life of the blooms. There is a legend of a place in Japan called Chrysanthemum Mountain. It is said that if you drink from the stream where the petals of the chrysanthemum fall into the water you will be blessed with long life. The 5-point card depicts the kiku next to a stream with a sake (rice wine) cup. Inside the wine cup the character for “longevity” is written. It was a common tradition to sprinkle chrysanthemum petals in one’s wine and drink them as a way to toast to long life and happiness.
October
神無月 Kaminazuki: month of the gods
In this month, all of the 8 million Shintō gods leave their provincial shrines to congregate at the great shrine in Izumo (Izumo Taisha)– the center of the indigenous Japanese Shintō religion. Izumo is about 60 miles north of Hiroshima. Like the month of Mizunazuki (June), Kaminazuki (October) can be interpreted two ways. It can be read as the “month of gods” or “month without gods.” In this case, the meaning depends on whether or not you are in Izumo.
October is represented by the autumn leaves changing color, called momiji. The red maple leaf has become synonymous with the word momiji, but the actual meaning of momiji refers to color changing leaves from any tree. The name of the maple tree is kaede. Sometimes the maple is called kaede when the leaves are green, and momiji when the leaves are red.
Although not technically a flower, the brilliant red autumn maple leaves are colorful as any flower. Like many people around the world, Japanese enjoy seeking out groves of maple trees turning hillsides brilliant hues of red and yellow. Momiji-gari is the word for autumn leaf viewing.
The stag represents gentleness. Together with the red maple, they are a symbol of longevity. They are also considered an ideal pairing. They are both at their most magnificent in the fall. The autumn leaves are a brilliant red, and the stag’s antlers are at their fullest. In winter, the stag will shed its antlers, and the maple drops its leaves. In the spring, they will both be rejuvenated and sprout new growth.
“Momiji ni Shika”
November
霜月 Shimotsuki: frost month
“Yanagi ni Tsubame”
(894–966)
November is known as the yanagi (willow), or ame (rain) suit. In Japan, the willow symbolizes the traits of an ideal woman. The willow tree is a symbol of gracefulness and strength. Geisha are often compared to the willow.
The tsubame (swallow) is often paired with the willow. The tsubame is a symbol of marital harmony and fidelity. They migrate away and usually return to nest in the same place the next year. Swallows are often associated with spring when they arrive in Japan from their winter homes in southeast Asia. There are also some individuals that do not migrate and spend the winter in parts of Japan. Like the deer and maple, the swallow and willow are seen as good companions and are symbols of happiness and harmony.
The other notable figure in the November suit is the man with an umbrella. This man is the famous Heian period government official, poet and calligrapher, Ono no Michikaze. Ono no Tōfū is another reading of his name. He is credited with creating a Japanese style of writing Chinese characters.
Ono no Michikaze became an inspirational hero for students. A popular story arose in the Edo period about his perseverance and dedication to his studies. The story begins when he was feeling particularly hopeless one rainy day and considered quitting his study of calligraphy.
He stopped by a stream near a willow tree. He saw a small frog trying to leap to a dangling willow branch. He watched the frog leap for a dangling branch seven times, but every time the wind would blow it just out of reach. He thought, “Stupid frog! No matter how many times you try you will never be able to reach the willow.” On the eighth attempt, the wind blew the branch toward the frog and it clung to it. Michikaze realized, “I myself am the stupid one. The frog created this chance with his determination. Up until now I haven’t been as diligent as this frog.”3 Ono no Michikaze was inspired by the perseverance of the frog and continued his career to become one of the most famous calligraphers in Japan.
“Gaji”
The gaji (lightning) card depicts the strong storms around this time of year. Typhoons, or hurricanes, usually arrive in Japan from September until November. The largest storms occur toward the end of the year. The gaji card is filled with lightning and rain. The black and red form the outline of a tornado. On the bottom is a large drum symbolizing thunder. On the top left are propellers symbolizing strong wind. This card can be used as a wild card in gameplay.
November is a special suit because it has three cards with points and a wild card. November was also a special month in the solar-lunar calendar. It could be longer or shorter depending on when the winter solstice occurred.
December
師走 Shiwasu: priests run
Shiwasu is the last of the old month names that is still commonly used in modern Japan. Since the nation switched to the Gregorian calendar in 1873 the months are only known by a number—month-one, month-two, month-three etc. The end of the solar year and the beginning of the new year is one of the most important holidays in Japan. It is a very exciting and busy time for everybody, especially the priests. Every new year Japanese visit the Shintō and Buddhist temples to get their blessings for the new year. The last month of the year is marked by the rushing about of busy priests as they prepare for New Year’s Day. If you are in Japan on New Year’s Day, it will seem like everyone in Japan is at their local temple and shrines. The Japanese look to the new year as a chance to shake off all the burdens of the previous year and get a fresh start.
December is represented by the kiri (paulownia) tree. The phoenix card is known in Hawaii as the tori (chicken) card. The phoenix is the symbol of righteousness and often connected with the empress. It is a representation of the mandate from heaven giving the Emperor the authority to rule. Legend says that only the kiri tree is beautiful enough for the phoenix to land on.
Prime Minister of Japan
The kiri is the official symbol of the Prime Minister of Japan. This was originally the crest of the Minamoto family, the first holders of the title shōgun. Minamoto was an honorary surname given to members of the Imperial family not in line for the throne. The name Minamoto is also sometimes referred to as Genji. The famous novel The Tale of Genji is about the Minamoto.
The crest with three paulownia leaves on the bottom and the blossoms on top numbering 5-7-5, was first awarded by the Heian Emperor to Minamoto no Yoshīe (1039 – 1106). Lesser members of the Minamoto clan had a similar crest with the flowers on top numbering 3-5-3. One of the requirements for becoming shōgun was to be from the Minamoto. The shōgun was almost always a blood relative of the Emperor.
“Kiri ni Hooh”
The shōgun was the chief general of the Emperor of Japan. The archipelago we know as Japan today was not always under the control of an Emperor. It took many centuries for the Emperor of the rice cultivating Yamato culture in the west to conquer indigenous people of northern Honshu and Hokkaido. The shōgun was the general who led expeditions to expand the realm. During times of peace, the shōgun took on an administrative role, taking care of the everyday tasks of governing. The shōgun was supposed to be carrying out the will of the Emperor, but who was actually making decisions varied over the centuries.
family crest
Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543 – 1616) founded the Tokugawa Shōgunate. Tokugawa Ieyasu’s ancestral connection to the Minamoto was dubious, but he had defeated all of his rivals and was the de-facto ruler of Japan when he received the title of shōgun. The Tokugawa family continued to rule Japan for about 250 years. There were a series of fifteen Tokugawa shōguns that ruled Japan from 1603-1868. The Tokugawa government held all the political and military power during the Edo period. The Emperor was just a figurehead in the capital of Kyōto. All important decisions were made in Edo by the shōgun.
The Edo government did not keep up with the changing world. By the mid-1800s it was facing a stagnant economy, and the rigid social structure had become anachronistic. They were also facing new threats from foreign powers. These crises led to a restructuring of the government.
At the beginning of the Meiji period (1868-1912), Emperor Meiji took political control away from the Tokugawa Shōgunate. This was the beginning of modern Japan. Emperor Meiji moved the capital from Kyōto to Edo and renamed it Tokyo (eastern capital). He gave political power to the lords and samurai that had helped restore his power. Eventually government transitioned to a democratic constitutional system. The paulownia crest of the Minamoto became a symbol of democratic government legitimized by the Emperor.
The Meiji period was also the beginning of Japanese emigration to Hawaiʻi. Japanese were allowed to travel to foreign lands and seek out new opportunities for the first time in hundreds of years. Many of them were from farming communities in western Japan. Social changes and industrialization were especially disruptive for rural people. Some Japanese returned to Japan after working in Hawaiʻi and some decided to stay in Hawaiʻi.5 Much of the Japanese culture and traditions in Hawaiʻi are characterized by their origins from western Japan during the Meiji era. Hanafuda was one of these Japanese contributions to the local culture of the Hawaiian Islands.
Footnotes
- A lunar month is about 29½ days, and there are about 12.3 lunar months in a solar year. ↩︎
- Minamoto no Yorimasa continued to suffer humiliations from the Heike Emperor even after defeating monsters for him. As an old man in his seventies, Yorimasa led a failed coup-de-etas against the Emperor. Minamoto no Yorimasa is both a heroic and tragic hero of many stories and plays. ↩︎
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ono_no_Michikaze ↩︎
- In 1920 Japanese were the largest ethnic group in the Hawaiian Islands, making up 43% of the population. ↩︎
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